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Beer 101

The Origins of Beer

There are very few countries in which beer has not been brewed. Its origins stretch back thousands of years. In fact, the first known recipe originated 6,000 years ago in Mesopotamia (Middle East) with the Sumerians, one of the world''s greatest, most ancient civilizations.

It was the early hunters who created beer, an unintentional by-product of their attempts to store seasonal berries. Wild yeasts turned the berries into wine, but it lacked nutritional value. People mixed cereal grains with water and combined that with wild yeasts. The result was a 'blissful' drink called beer, which was deemed suitable for sacred rituals.

For example, the Aramaic scrolls record the miraculous turning of water into a strong drink. The Saxon version of the Gospel records that this 'strong drink' was actually beer, not wine. At least 3,000 years before the Christian era, Egyptians consumed an intoxicating drink as a source of nutrition. Roman historian Pliny wrote that people across Northern Europe drank a fermented drink made from corn and water.

Beer breweries and monasteries have a long, intertwined history, with many monasteries housing breweries. In fact, it is estimated there were once more than 500 monastic breweries throughout Europe. This was before they were sacked in England by King Henry VIII, and on the continent by Napoleon. Elsewhere in Europe, both church and state played a role in brewing history.

Ingredients for making beer

Malt, water, yeast and hops are the four main ingredients for making beer. These ingredients, mixed in the right proportions under the proper conditions, will produce beer. Essentially, it can be defined as a brewed and fermented alcoholic beverage made from malted grains and flavoured with hops.

Sugar is one essential element that makes fermentation possible. Unlike the sweet grape juice used in making wine, the grains used to produce beer do not contain lots of easily accessible sugars. Instead, these high-starch grains must go through a process called malting in order to convert the starches into fermentable sugars.

Malt is simply germinated grain. Though the methods of producing malt may vary, the principles are the same. One modern process of malting begins by steeping or soaking the grain in water until it is thoroughly softened. After this initial soak, the moist grain goes into temperature-and-moisture-controlled compartments where it germinates. Once the grain produces sprouts approximately three-quarters of an inch long, it is known as green malt. To prevent the grain from germinating further, the green malt is placed in a kiln or roasting drum where it is dried.

The amount of heat and length of time the malt is roasted determines the colour and sweetness of the final product. Some typical types of malt include pale, caramel, crystal, roasted, chocolate and black malt. As the names suggest, malt colours range from a light pale to black. Lightly roasted malts produce the highest amount of fermentable sugars. Chocolate or black malts are kilned until much of the sugar is caramelized, leaving less fermentable sugars and creating their distinct colours. Though these darker malts have less fermentable sugars, it takes a small quantity to produce a black-coloured beer.

At this point, the kilned malt is screened to separate and remove the dried sprouts from the malted grain. It is then ground in a mill to produce what is referred to as grist. Most breweries purchase their malt from professional maltsters rather than producing it themselves. The brewery specifies the manner in which the malt is processed at the time it is ordered. Some large breweries ground the malt themselves; small breweries without adequate space purchase it in the form of grist.

Water is another essential ingredient for making beer. It may seem to be the least important of the four main ingredients, but this is not the case. Water forms 85-90% of the finished beer and is used in every step of the brewing process. Traditionally, most major brewing centres worldwide developed because they had ready access to quality sources of water. This is not the case today, as it is possible to chemically treat water to remove or add minerals from different water sources. In fact, there is a brewery in the Caribbean using desalinized seawater. This ability to control the quantity of minerals is important because water that is suitable for making ales isn’t necessarily appropriate for lagers.

The type of yeast used by each brewery is its most-protected secret. Yeast imparts such characteristics as sweetness/dryness, texture and fruity/grassy notes to beer, providing each brewery with its own unique house character. As a result, there are specific yeasts used for producing individual styles of beer. For example, ales use top-fermenting cultivated yeasts, while lagers use bottom-fermenting cultivated yeasts. In contrast, Lambic beers rely on wild airborne yeasts to start their fermentation.

One of the most important factors for a brewery is the consistency of its product. Nothing is more vital for maintaining consistency than the yeast. To prevent inconsistencies, breweries make every effort to ensure the yeast is not infected by other microorganisms, or altered somehow. If something did affect the yeast, the vessels holding the beer would have to be dumped and the brewery sterilized. Yeast cultures vary so much that they are not only fermented at different temperatures, but they also differ in their ability to attain different alcohol levels.

Hops are the essential ingredient for imparting bitterness and aromas to balance the flavour of beer. Without hops to balance the flavours, beer would simply be a sweet grain juice. A vine-like climbing plant with cone-shaped blossoms, the hop is a member of the same family as cannabis. Hops contain resins and essential oils originating from the base of the petals, which account for the bitterness and dryness. The cones contain tannins that act as a natural preservative. Today, it is possible to chemically analyze hops to determine their exact amount of bitterness. Brewers use an international scale to determine the bitterness units (IBU) of hops. The fuller the beer, the higher the bitterness required to balance the sweetness of the malt. Since different hops have different bitterness/aroma potential, a brewer may use more than one type in the brewing process. This can be compared to a winemaker blending different grape varieties to produce a certain flavour of wine.

Method & equipment used in the brewing process

The first step in the brewing process is to transfer malted barley into a vessel called a mash mixer. There, it is combined with water that is heated to the optimal temperature so that an enzyme called diastase (formed during malting) becomes active. It converts the starches from the malt into sugars, which then dissolve in the water, preparing it for the next process. Barley is the principal grain used in making beer. It produces enough diastase to convert its own starches into sugars, and those of the other grains often used in brewing. At this point, the mixture of grain, sugar and water is referred to as mash.

Other high-starch grains such as corn and rice are often added. These are referred to as cereal adjuncts (adjuncts) and are used to lighten the flavour of beer. The adjuncts are first ground up in a mill to expose their starches before being transferred into a cereal cooker. There, they are mixed with a small amount of barley malt and water that is heated to the optimal temperature for the diastase to convert starches to sugars. The mixture is boiled to complete the process of converting the starches to sugars, and to create a liquid form. It is now ready to be added to the malted barley in the mash mixer.

When the mashing process is complete, the mash is transferred into a lauter tun. The word lauter in German means to separate or filter. The bottom of this large vessel is perforated with small slots. They allow the sweet liquid (known as wort) from the mash to filter through, leaving behind the grain. Afterward, the grain is sprayed with water to extract as much of the fermentable sugars as possible that are left behind. The wort is then transferred to a brew kettle and the leftover grain is sold as quality livestock feed.
The wort (pronounced wert) is subjected to a controlled boil in the brew kettle where it is sterilized. It is here that the hops are added. Once the hops have had a chance to impart their flavours and aromas, they are separated from the wort by passing through a hop strainer. The wort must then be cooled for the next step in the brewing process.

The temperature to which the wort is cooled depends on the type of beer being made. As mentioned earlier, different yeasts ferment at different temperatures. Once it is cooled to the optimum temperature, the wort is transferred into a fermentation tank. Yeast is then added to the wort to convert the sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide. It is at this point that it can officially be called beer. The carbon dioxide produced is collected, compressed and stored in tanks to be added back later in the brewing process.

When fermentation is completed, the beer is transferred to a tank where it is allowed to rest for a period of time at a very cool temperature. The period of time and temperature depend on the type of beer being made. This resting period allows suspended particles to settle at the bottom of the tank. The beer is then racked – a filtering process whereby the clear beer is transferred into another tank, leaving the sediment behind. The brewer may decide to filter the beer further by way of microsporous filters.

Once filtered, the beer is carbonated. The more common method for doing this is to inject the beer with a small amount of the stored carbon dioxide from its original fermentation. Once it is carbonated, it is refrigerated and filtered. The beer is now ready to be packaged in bottles, cans or kegs.

Most bottled and canned beer is pasteurized. The filled bottles or cans are subjected to a temperature of 66-71ºC, or 150-160ºF, for about 10 to 15 minutes to make it sterile and kill any remaining yeast that may be active. Another method is called flash pasteurization. This is a faster method whereby the beer is heated to 82-85ºC, or 180-185ºF, for only one minute. Pasteurized beer has a longer shelf life than non-pasteurized beer.

Brief review of process

Mash Mixer & Cereal Cooker: Malted barley & cereal adjuncts combine with hot water, where diastase converts the starches into sugars that dissolve in the water.
Lauter Tun: Large vessel that separates the sweet liquid (wort) from the grain.
Brew Kettle: Wort is boiled and hops are added.
Fermentation Tank: Yeast is added to start fermentation.
Aging Tanks: Allows suspended particles to settle to the bottom.
Packaging: Into bottles/cans or kegs where it may be pasteurized.

Serving

Do you tilt your glass and pour the beer down the side of it to create as little foam as possible? This is not the best method for pouring. Pour your beer slowly down the side of the glass (tilted) until it is half full. Then, hold the glass upright and pour the remaining beer into the centre of the glass. This way, you can create a head (foam) until it reaches the rim of the glass. Creating a head allows some of the carbon dioxide to be released into the air, which reveals some of the beer’s subtler aromas and flavours. It’s similar to swirling a glass of wine before drinking it.

The proper serving temperature depends on the style of beer. Typically, you should serve a lager at around 10ºC/50ºF, ales at 13ºC/55ºF and porters at 16ºC/60ºF. Different styles of beer will expose their true taste at different temperatures. The colder a beer is allowed to get, the less its true flavour will come out. Although there are optimal temperatures for serving beer, it is a beverage for pleasure and refreshment, so serve it as cold as you like.

Pouring the perfect beer starts with a clean glass free from grease and finger marks. It must not be too warm; a hot glass straight from the dishwasher will do nothing for the beer. Open the bottle. If it is a bottle-conditioned beer, be careful not to disturb the yeast. Tilt the glass to about 45° and carefully pour the beer down the side of the glass. As you continue pouring, slowly straighten the glass to vertical and watch the white foaming head miraculously appear. If the beer has some sediment, most people stop pouring before the yeast drains into the glass. Others like to drink the sediment, swirling the residue into the glass to give the beer a distinctively hazy hue.

Beer is the only alcoholic drink to have a foaming head. It is created as the carbon dioxide rises up through the beer and adheres to proteins created by the malted cereal. How fast you pour can vary the size of the head, but different beer styles typically have different heads.

Storage

How often have you bought a case of beer and placed it anywhere in the house until it was time to drink it? Or worse, you left it in the trunk of your car and only discovered it the next time you needed trunk space to pack the groceries. Just as wines differ, there are different aging potentials and shelf life for different styles of beer. So, it’s necessary to store them properly in order to maintain their freshness and flavour.

Direct sunlight is the worst enemy of beer. Over time, the ultraviolet rays interact with the hops in the beer, giving it a skunky smell and taste, and a cloudy appearance. Most beer bottles are tinted brown or green to prevent this unwanted light from entering. Through research, and trial and error, brewers have found a type of hop that is more resistant to ultraviolet rays. They are able to bottle their beer using clear glass.

Temperature is the second worst enemy of beer, though it may affect the beer before sunlight does (i.e., freezing). It is best to store beer in a dark area with a cooler temperature, providing it does not fall below freezing. Like wine, extreme temperature fluctuation can have a devastating impact on beer.

Attributes

Colour – The colour of beer is a result of the type of malt used in brewing. Beer can range in colour from very pale yellow to almost black, with varying degrees in between.

Flavour – Flavour is the sensation that combines taste, aroma and mouthfeel. Many consider malt the primary contributor to flavour, but most aromatics are created by both hops and yeast.

Bitterness – Beer needs bitterness to balance the sweetness of the malt. Bitterness also serves to cleanse your palate of rich foods and prepare you for the next bite or sip.

Carbonation – Carbonation is a naturally occurring by-product of fermentation and is also seen to be a natural preservative. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) has a bitter mouthfeel and can help cleanse the palate. It also brings aromas to beer through the foam, while providing a refreshing zip to the body of beer.

Dryness – Dryness occurs when there is a lack of complex carbohydrates in beer. This is generally accomplished in the mashing process by extending times in the mash tun. The interesting fact about dryness is that it makes your saliva glands secrete, creating a craving for what was just in your mouth.

Hoppiness – Generally seen to be the attributes associated with hops (bitterness and aroma).

Hops, depending on the variety, have the following aromas:

Floral– look for scents of fresh flowers.
Fruity – try to assess whether it is hanging fruit or low-lying fruit.
Grassy – look for fresh-cut grass, hay, straw.
Lemon –very citrus-like characters.
Grapefruit – cascade hops have this attribute.
Piney – look for fresh evergreen.
Earthy – could appear to be moss, black earth, mushrooms.
Malty – another general description used to explain the sweetness aspect of beer. Depending on the type used, malt can provide the following flavours:
- Bready – think about fresh-baked bread - wholesome, sweet.
- Honey-like – cloverleaf, buckwheat and sweeter overtones.
- Toasty – slight flavours of toasted bread.
- Biscuity – look for more roasted flavours with some crispness.
- Molasses – darker, more intense than caramels.
- Nutty – hazelnuts, almonds, vanilla.
- Chocolate – look for semi-sweet or darker chocolates, mocha.
- Coffee – deep roasted, almost burnt flavours and aromas.

Styles - How to recognize different types of beer

Lager
Lagers use yeast that settles to the bottom of the tank during fermentation (bottom-fermenting yeast), requiring the finished beer to be drawn off the top. This yeast is fermented at a cooler temperature and for a longer period than other yeasts, like those used for making ales. After fermentation, the lager is stored at a very cool temperature for aging, which allows any sediment to settle. Lagers tend to be lighter in both colour and body, and are generally made with fewer hops compared to other styles of beer.

Pilsner
This lager-style beer was originally brewed in Pilsen, Czechoslovakia. Pilsner is still produced there and sold under the brand name of Pilsner Urquell. (Pilsner means from Pilsen; Urquell means original source.) Pilsner beers are known to be clear and tend to be light to medium bodied, with a pronounced hopped flavour and aroma. The pilsner style is copied in other parts of the world, but never quite replicates the quality.

Bock
This is another lager-style beer. Since the colours normally range from dark amber to a reddish tone, bock beers are often mistaken for ales. Though originally made seasonally from fall to early spring, the beer is now brewed year-round. Compared to a typical lager, Bock beer has a higher alcohol content (normally from 6% to as high as 13%), and is somewhat sweeter with a maltier taste.

Dry Beer
This is almost exclusively a regular lager-style beer that has been allowed to ferment until all of the sugars are converted, creating a dry beer. Some brewers use specialized yeasts developed to break down normally unfermentable sugars. With the absence of sugar, dry beer offers a refreshing quality with very little to no aftertaste. Also, the additional sugars that are fermented create a higher level of alcohol than in regular beer.

Ale
Ales use yeast that rises to the top of the tank after fermentation (top-fermenting yeast). The yeast is then skimmed off of the top allowing access to the finished beer. Ales are generally more heavily hopped than lagers, fuller bodied and bitterer. There are many different styles of ale, each with its own unique characteristics. Pale ales have a light amber tint with a yeasty taste and hoppy finish. Brown ales are darker and tend to be medium dry to sweet, with a maltier, hoppier taste.

Bitter
This is a style of draft ale that is mainly found in Britain, though other parts of the world produce their own versions. The term bitter in this sense refers to the beer having a good hoppy dryness (since the bitter flavour comes from hops). The colour usually ranges from that of straw to ruby red. Where some brewers offer more than one brand of bitter, they are often classified as ordinary, special and extra special in order of alcohol strength from lowest to highest.

Porters / Stout
These are dark ales (at times almost black) made from malts as dark as burnt toast or coffee beans. There are two basic styles: London, which tends to be sweeter; and Irish, which is dryer and bitterer. Generally, porters are lighter in body than stouts, though not necessarily in strength. They are traditionally served cool, but not cold.

Lambic
This very unique family of beer is particular to Brussels, Belgium. There are many unique production methods used in making Lambic beer. For example, wild airborne yeasts are used for fermentation rather than cultivated strains of yeast. Over 30% of unmalted wheat is used during fermentation. The hops are aged for up to three years to dissipate aromas and bitterness, and thus are used as a preserving agent, not for flavour. Lastly, the best-known beers of the Lambic family use fruit (e.g., cherries, raspberries) during fermentation to add flavour and complexity. These are becoming increasingly popular for cooking and accompanying fruit-flavoured foods.

Light Beer
A category of beer that includes those with a lower alcohol content than regular beer (usually between 0.9% to 4%). Lower alcohol content translates to fewer calories. This is a major reason people choose light beer. It is also a good match when cooking or enjoying light foods.

Draft (Draught) Beer
Once, draft (draught) beer described any style of beer that had not been pasteurized. (A process of heating the beer to 60º-79ºC or 140º-174ºF to kill any living organisms to make it stable.) Today, it is not uncommon for draft beer to be pasteurized. The only difference between draft & regular beer is the type of container it is stored in. Draft is dispensed by way of a keg; regular beer uses bottles or cans.

Wheat Beer
Traditional European wheat beers are top fermenting and are made from a combination of both malted wheat and barley. Wheat beers are rarely made from 100% wheat because it is huskless; it tends to easily clog the mashing vessel. It is commonly mixed with a portion of barley, which has husks that form their own natural filter bed. Wheat beers can be clear or cloudy from yeast sediment, depending on whether the beer has been filtered or not. The word White, Weisse (German) or Blanche sometime appears on Belgian labels. This indicates the use of a portion of unmalted wheat and botanical spices.

Sake
Sake is a Japanese beverage that is brewed exclusively from rice. Though many think it is a wine, it is similar to beer because the starch in the rice must be converted to sugar to make sake. The process requires a special strain of yeast that is capable of producing a higher percentage of alcohol (usually between 13% and 17%). It is generally a clear, colourless alcoholic beverage that is traditionally heated prior to being served. The rice used in the production of sake is not the same kind of rice that we eat.

Flavour Profiles

The main factors in beer flavour

Hops are the essential ingredient for imparting bitterness and aromas to balance the flavour of beer. Without hops to balance the flavours, beer would simply be a sweet grain juice. A vine-like climbing plant with cone-shaped blossoms, the hop is a member of the same family as cannabis. Hops contain resins and essential oils originating from the base of the petal, which account for the bitterness and dryness. The cones contain tannins that act as a natural preservative. Today, it is possible to chemically analyze hops to determine their exact amount of bitterness. Brewers use an international scale to determine the bitterness units (IBU) of hops. The fuller the beer, the higher the bitterness required to balance the sweetness of the malt. Since different hops have different bitterness/aroma potential, a brewer may use more than one type in the brewing process. This can be compared to a winemaker blending different grape varieties to produce a certain flavour of wine.

Care and handling

Just as wines differ, there are different aging potentials and shelf life for different styles of beer. So, it’s necessary to store them properly in order to maintain their freshness and flavour.

Glassware

Different glasses for different beer

The geometry of the glass affects the way beer looks, smells and tastes. Nations towns and individual breweries have developed a wide range of distinguished glassware. Some are simple and straightforward; others are more ostentatious and theatrical. A proper glass will maintain temperature, and maximize the aroma and flavour.

How the glass feels in the hand is important. An outward taper or various types of ridges or bump-outs can keep the glass from slipping out of the hand. Stems accomplish a similar effect as a handle (a requirement on larger vessels). They allow you to hold the glass without transferring too much heat from your hand to the beer.

For aroma, nothing helps a beer as much as glassware with a narrower top than middle (think of a wine glass). When filled to the brim, this feature doesn’t add anything. But as soon as the beer drops an inch or two below the rim, the inward taper holds the aroma inside the glass instead of letting it drift out into the room.

An outward taper, as in a classic pilsner glass, has an effect on foam. The outward tapering acts as a wedge, giving the head additional support. The inward taper forces the foam in on itself as the glass is filled. This concentrates the foam and results in a denser, creamier head.

Finally there is the rim, which may turn inward or flare outward. The shape of the rim changes the part of the mouth into which it delivers the beer, such as across the mouth, not just the centre of the tongue. This changes the way your mouth perceives flavours.

Most people believe that approximately one inch of foam is the proper amount, although this rule of thumb will vary by region and style of beer. Belgian beer is heavily carbonated, making it virtually impossible to pour one without creating a big fluffy head. For this reason, many beer glasses have capacity about twice the size of the serving portion.

Great beer demands great glasses. If you order a hazy spiced Hoegaarden, it is typically served in a chunky tumbler, while a Leffe is poured into an audacious goblet. A Kölsch is best suited to a tall, narrow, straight glass. A stout – its gorgeous white head contrasting starkly with its jet-black body – looks perfect in a nonick glass. And Bière de Garde looks equally entrancing in a tulip-style glass, with its head embraced by the incurving rim

Glass Shapes

Balloon
Allows the drinker to appreciate the beer and its soft foamy head, while savouring its fine aroma.

Goblet
Trappist beer such as Orval and Westmalle should be served in goblets. The inward taper concentrates the head and aroma; the smaller size is great for stronger beer.

Snifter
For strong beer and barley wines, the snifter is the best choice. The shape holds aromas well, and its scale lends itself to rich, powerful beers such as Samichlaus from Austria.

Flute
Pilsners and wheat beer are commonly served in tall, thin wasp-waisted flutes. The narrow shape shows off the pale colour, the outward-taper shape supports the head and the footed design adds elegance and stability.

Cylinder
Small light cylindrical glasses – little glass chimneys that show off the plume of the beer’s flamboyant head.

Tulip
In Britain, you are most likely to get a tulip-shaped glass with a smooth contour or a nonick (see below). The inward taper holds aroma; the outward flare supports the head and fits the lips. Considered to be the best of all worlds.

Tumbler
Belgian beers have adopted the robust, chunky tumbler made popular by Hoegaarden Brewery

Nonick
Since the 1960s, English ales have been served in Nonick glassware. The bump keeps the rim from chipping and makes it easier to hold for stand-up drinking.

Washing
In a perfect world, you would only use beer glasses for beer. Instead of soap, wash beer glasses in scalding hot water, followed by a rinse in hot water, and then cold. You should always allow the glasses to drip dry rather than using a cloth. Also, always rinse your glass with cold water before serving to clean out any lint or dust.

Brewers of the World

Brief history of beer and brewing by nation

CzechRepublic
The Czech Republic, which may have been the first to use hops over 1,000 years ago, takes pride in its brewing heritage. The first Czech brewery was built in 1118. They also invented the world’s most popular beer, Pilsner, in 1842.

Germany
Germany currently has approximately 1,300 beers in production. A part of its rich heritage, beer was once used in mystic rituals, such as drinking to the ancient gods. Pilsner is the most popular style of beer in Germany. The city of Munich holds the world’s most famous beer festival, Oktoberfest. This 16-day festival was first held in 1810.

Belgium
Belgians largely consume pale ales, which were developed to compete with the pilsner market of neighbouring Germany. Beer is so central to Belgian culture that it is as acceptable at the dinner table as wine.

England
English beer remains true to national traditions. English ales are known as gentle ales in both carbonation and temperature. One beer style is cask–conditioned beer, known as cask ale or ‘real ale.’ It’s made from fresh, natural ingredients and not pasteurized or filtered. It undergoes a second fermentation in the container, known as the cask.

Scotland
Traditional Scottish ales have a heavy malt taste. This is a tradition that dates back to the days when hops were expensive to import from the south of England, and barley was freely available.

Wales
The Welsh brewing industry was booming by the 19th century, thanks to workers from the heavy industries in the nation’s valleys.

Ireland
Irish beer is dominated by the stout style. Guinness beer has become an internationally famous brand and an icon of Irish culture. Started in 1759, the brewer became the world’s largest by the 20th century. Pouring the perfect Guinness can take up to two minutes. Ireland also produces ales that are typically reddish in colour.

The Netherlands
The Netherlands are famous for their Heineken and Grolsch pilsners, and influenced by Belgian ales. In the south, you will find more German and Czech–style lagers.

Austria
Famous for its Vienna lager style.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Beer – A brewed and fermented alcoholic beverage made from malted grains and flavoured with hops.

Botanical – Plant-based flavouring agents such as juniper berries, coriander, lemon peel, cassia bark and nutmeg.

Brewpubs – A pub or restaurant that brews beer on location.

Cereal Adjuncts (Adjuncts) – High-starch grains such as corn and rice that are used to lighten the flavour of beer.

Desalinize – To remove salt and other chemicals from seawater.

Diastase – An enzyme formed during malting certain grains that converts the starches from the malt into sugars.

Green Malt – Grain that has sprouted to about three-quarters of an inch long from germination.

Grist – Kilned malt that has been ground up in a mill.

Hopped – Means that hops have been added.

Kilning – The process of heating a substance (grain in our case) in a particular style of oven.

Malt – This is simply germinated grain.

Microbrewery – A small-scale modern brewery that produces a limited volume of beer.

Pasteurization – The process of heating a liquid to kill any living organisms.

Wort - The sweet liquid that is created during the mashing process.